Sodium chloride
Production and use
Salt is currently mass-produced by evaporation of seawater or brine from other sources, such as brine wells and salt lakes, and by mining rock salt, called halite. In 2002, world production was estimated at 210 million metric tons, the top five producers (in million tonnes) being the United States (40.3), China (32.9), Germany (17.7), India (14.5) and Canada (12.3).
As well as the familiar uses of salt in cooking, salt is used in many applications, from manufacturing pulp and paper, to setting dyes in textiles and fabric, to producing soaps, detergents, and other bath products. It is the major source of industrial chlorine and sodium hydroxide, and used in almost every industry.
Sodium chloride is sometimes used as a cheap and safe desiccant because it appears to have hygroscopic properties, making salting an effective method of food preservation historically; as it draws water out of bacteria through osmotic pressure preventing them from reproducing and causing food to spoil. Even though more effective desiccants are available, few are safe for humans to ingest.
Israeli and Jordanian salt evaporation ponds at the south end of the Dead Sea.
Mounds of salt, Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia.
Modern rock salt mine near Mount Morris, New York, United States.
Evaporation lagoons, Aigues-Mortes, France.
Solubility of NaCl in various solvents
(g NaCl / 100 g of solvent at 25 C)
H2O
36
Liquid ammonia
3.02
Methanol
1.4
Sulfolane
0.005
Formic acid
5.2
Acetone
0.000042
Formamide
9.4
Acetonitrile
0.0003
Dimethylformamide
0.04
Reference:
Burgess, J. Metal Ions in Solution
(Ellis Horwood, New York, 1978)
ISBN 0-85312-027-7
Synthetic uses
Sodium chloride is also the raw material used to produce chlorine which itself is required for sterilization and the production of many modern materials including PVC, pesticides and epoxy resins. Industrially, elemental chlorine is usually produced by the electrolysis of sodium chloride dissolved in water. Along with chlorine, this chloralkali process yields hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide, according to the chemical equation
2NaCl + 2H2O Cl2 + H2 + 2NaOH
Sodium metal is produced commercially through the electrolysis of liquid sodium chloride. This is now done in a Down’s cell in which sodium chloride is mixed with calcium chloride to lower the melting point below 700 C. As calcium is more electropositive than sodium, no calcium will be formed at the cathode. This method is less expensive than the previous method of electrolyzing sodium hydroxide.
Sodium chloride is used in other chemical processes for the large-scale production of compounds containing sodium or chlorine. In the Solvay process, sodium chloride is used for producing sodium carbonate and calcium chloride. In the Mannheim process and in the Hargreaves process, it is used for the production of sodium sulfate and hydrochloric acid.
Biological uses
Many micro organisms cannot live in an overly salty environment: water is drawn out of their cells by osmosis. For this reason salt is used to preserve some foods, such as smoked bacon or fish. It can also be used to detach leeches that have attached themselves to feed. It is also used to disinfect wounds.
Optical uses
Pure NaCl crystal is an optical compound with a wide transmission range from 200 nm to 20 um. It was often used in the infrared spectrum range and it is still used sometimes.
NaCl crystal is soft, hygroscopic and inexpensive. This limits its application to protected environment or for short term uses (prototyping). Exposed to free air NaCl optics will “rot”.
Today tougher crystals like ZnSe are used instead of NaCl (for the IR spectral range).
Optical data
Transmitivity: 92% (from 400 nm to 13m)
Refractive Index: 1.494 @ 10m
Reflection Loss: 7.5% @ 10m (2 surfaces)
dN/dT: -36.2 x 10-6/C @ 0.7m
Household uses
Since at least medieval times, people have used salt as a cleansing agent rubbed on household surfaces. It is also used in many brands of shampoo, and popularly to de-ice driveways and patches of ice.
At one time salt water was used to clean teeth.
Firefighting uses
A class D fire extinguisher for various metals
Sodium Chloride is the principal extinguishing agent in fire extinguishers (Met-L-X, Super D) used on combustible metal fires such as magnesium, potassium, sodium, and NaK alloys (Class D). Thermoplastic powder is added to the mixture, along with waterproofing (metal stearates) and anti-caking materials (tricalcium phosphate) to form the extinguishing agent. When it is applied to the fire, the salt acts like a heat sink, dissipating heat from the fire, and also forms an oxygen-excluding crust to smother the fire. The plastic additive melts and helps the crust maintain its integrity until the burning metal cools below its ignition temperature. This type of extinguisher was invented in the late 1940s in the cartridge-operated type shown here, although stored pressure versions are now popular. Common sizes are 30 lb. portable and 350 lb. wheeled.
In weather
Clouds above the Pacific
Small particles of sea salt are the dominant cloud condensation nuclei well out at sea, which allow the formation of clouds in otherwise non-polluted air. Snow removal by addition of salt (salting) is done to make travel easier and safer, and decrease the long term impact of a heavy snowfall on human populations. This process is done by both individual households and by governments and institutions and utilizes salts to eliminate snow from road surfaces and sidewalks.
Biological functions
In humans, a high-salt intake has long been known to generally raise blood pressure, especially in certain individuals. More recently, it was demonstrated to attenuate nitric oxide production. Nitric oxide (NO) contributes to vessel homeostasis by inhibiting vascular smooth muscle contraction and growth, platelet aggregation, and leukocyte adhesion to the endothelium.
Crystal structure
The crystal structure of sodium chloride. Each ion has six nearest neighbors, with octahedral geometry.
Main article: Cubic crystal system
Sodium chloride forms crystals with face-centered cubic symmetry. In these, the larger chloride ions, shown to the right as green spheres, are arranged in a cubic close-packing, while the smaller sodium ions, shown to the right as silver spheres, fill all the cubic gaps between them. Each ion is surrounded by six ions of the other kind; the surrounding ions are located at the vertices of a regular octahedron.
This same basic structure is found in many other minerals and is commonly known as the halite or rock-salt crystal structure. It can be represented as a face-centered cubic (fcc) lattice with a two atom basis. The first atom is located at each lattice point, and the second atom is located half way between lattice points along the fcc unit cell edge.
It is held together by an ionic bond which is produced by electrostatic forces arising from the difference in charge between the ions.
Road salt
While salt was once a scarce commodity in history, industrialized production has now made salt plentiful. Approximately 51% of world output is now used by cold countries to de-ice roads in winter, both in grit bins and spread by winter service vehicles. Calcium chloride is preferred over sodium chloride, since CaCl2 releases energy upon forming a solution with water, heating any ice or snow it is in contact with. It also lowers the freezing point, depending on the concentration. NaCl does not release heat upon solution; however, it does lower the freezing point. Calcium chloride is thought to be more environmentally friendly than sodium chloride when used to de-ice roads, however a drawback is that it tends to promote corrosion (of vehicles) more so than sodium chloride. NaCl is also more readily available and does not have any special handling or storage requirements, unlike calcium chloride. The salinity (S) of water is measured as grams salt per kilogram (1000g) water, and the freezing temperatures are as follows.
S(g/kg)
0
10
20
24.7
30
35
T(freezing) (C)
0
-0.5
-1.08
-1.33
-1.63
-1.91
Additives
Most table salt sold for consumption today is not pure sodium chloride. In 1911 magnesium carbonate was first added to salt to make it flow more freely. In 1924 trace amounts of iodine in form of sodium iodide, potassium iodide or potassium iodate were first added, to reduce the incidence of simple goiter.
Salt for de-icing in the UK predominantly comes from a single mine in Winsford in Cheshire []. Prior to distribution it has an anti-caking agent added, sodium hexacyanoferrate(II) at less than 100ppm, this treatment enables rock salt to flow freely out of the gritting vehicles despite being stockpiled prior to use. In recent years this additive has also been used in table salt.
Environmental impact
Road salt ends up in fresh water bodies and could could harm aquatic plants and animals by disrupting their osmoregulation ability. An alternative is to spread rough sand on ice so the surface is not slippery.
Alternative names
NaCl, Sodium monochloride
Table salt, Sal Culinare or Sal Culinaris
Common Salt, Sal Commune
Muriate of soda, Muriate of natrium, Chloride of Sodium, Hydrochlorate of Soda (older names)
Sodii Chloridum, SodAe Hydro-chloras, SodAe Murias (ancient names)
Nat Mur for Natrum Muriaticum, Natrum Muriatica, or even Natrium Muriate (homeopathic/Biochemic cell salts)
See also
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Salt
Biosalinity
Kala Namak
Halite, the mineral form of sodium chloride
Schler’s list of 12 Biochemic cell salts (names: “Nat Mur” for “Natrum muriaticum”, etc.); List of homeopathic preparations
Salinity
Salt
Soap
Salting the earth
References
^ Martel, B.; Cassidy, K. (2004), Chemical Risk Analysis: A Practical Handbook, Butterwortheinemann, p. 369, ISBN 1903996651
^ Susan R. Feldman. Sodium chloride. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published online, 2005 doi:10.1002/0471238961.1915040902051820.a01.pub2
^ B. J. Mason (2006-12-19). “The role of sea-salt particles as cloud condensation nuclei over the remote oceans”. The Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 127 (576): 20232032. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/114028130/abstract. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
^ David A. Kuemmel (1994). Managing roadway snow and ice control operations. Transportation Research Board. p. 10. ISBN 9780309056663. http://books.google.com/books?id=I3gxuwTE5_MC&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=effect+of+snowfall+on+infrastructure&source=bl&ots=kmDWQqfCno&sig=yMOXi2gv5_LJf_o3qNA36e0FSO8&hl=en&ei=nKxUSt-pAY7ElAeIoZXkCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
^ Relationship between Salt Intake, Nitric Oxide and Asymmetric Dimethylarginine and Its Relevance to Patients with End-Stage
^ Dietary sodium and cardiovascular and renal disease risk factors: dark horse or phantom entry?
^ “Morton Salt FAQ”. http://www.mortonsalt.com/faqs/index.html#q3. Retrieved 2007-05-12.
^ Markel H (1987). “”When it rains it pours”: endemic goiter, iodized salt, and David Murray Cowie, MD”. American journal of public health 77 (2): 21929. doi:10.2105/AJPH.77.2.219. PMID 3541654. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1646845.
^ Does road salt harm the environment?
^ National Institute of Standards and Technology: Sodium Chloride
Further reading
Kaufmann, Dale W., SODIUM CHLORIDE, The Production and Properties of Salt and Brine, ACS Monograph 145, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1960, 743 pages. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 79-50778.
Kurlansky, Mark, SALT, A World History, Walker and Company, New York, 2002, 484 pages. ISBN 0-8027-1373-4
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sodium chloride
The Salt Manufacturers Association website
Salt Institute website
Salt Archive website
Salt United States Geological Survey Statistics and Information
US Road Management website
Salt Intake in Cold Weather
Oxford MSDS
JtBaker MSDS
v d e
Sodium compounds
NaAlO2 NaBH3(CN) NaBH4 NaBr NaBrO4 NaCH3COO NaCN NaC6H5CO2 NaC6H4(OH)CO2 NaCl NaClO NaClO2 NaClO3 NaClO4 NaF NaH NaHCO3 NaHSO3 NaHSO4 NaI NaIO3 NaIO4 NaMnO4 NaNH2 NaNO2 NaNO3 NaN3 NaOH NaO2 NaPO2H2 NaReO4 NaSCN NaSH NaTcO4 NaVO3 Na2CO3 Na2C2O4 Na2CrO4 Na2Cr2O7 Na2MnO4 Na2MoO4 Na2O Na2O2 Na2O(UO3)2 Na2S Na2SO3 Na2SO4 Na2S2O3 Na2S2O4 Na2S2O5 Na2S2O6 Na2S2O7 Na2S2O8 Na2SeO3 Na2SeO4 Na2SiO3 Na2Te Na2TeO3 Na2Ti3O7 Na2U2O7 NaWO4 Na2Zn(OH)4 Na3N Na3P Na3VO4 Na4Fe(CN)6 Na5P3O10
Categories: Granular materials | Preservatives | Antiseptics | Snow removal | Sodium compounds | Chlorides | World Health Organization essential medicinesHidden categories: Chemboxes which contain changes to watched fields
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